| PROCESS STEPS | METHODS OF EXAMINATION(1) | METHODS OF ANALYSIS(2) | PROVIDE INFORMATION ON: | SEE | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Usual techniques and tools | Rarer techniques(3) | Usual techniques and tools | Rarer techniques(4) | |||
| Casting processes | Naked-eye examination (good lighting at different angles, including raking light and RTI), portable loupe, stereo microscope, magnet, borescope or endoscope, X-radiography | 3D scanning/photogrammetry, high energy X-rays (1 MeV and beyond) or gamma or neutron radiography, computerized tomography (CT), ultrasonic testing, thermography | - | Carbon-14 dating (of iron armatures) | Method of fabrication of the models, degree of modeling, type of cast (hollow, solid, direct, indirect, other), casting method, possible absolute and relative dating |
I.1 II.8 |
| Core | Naked-eye examination, borescope or endoscope, stereo microscope, X-radiography | High-energy X-rays (1 MeV and beyond) or gamma or neutron radiography, computerized tomography (CT) |
|
|
Identification of core materials, method of fabrication, provenance of core materials, possible absolute and relative dating |
II.7 II.8 |
| Metals(5) | Naked-eye examination, olfactory testing | - |
|
|
Identification of the alloy, characterization of its properties, provenance of raw materials, possible relative dating |
I.2 II.5 |
| Casting defects | Naked-eye examination (good lighting at different angles, including raking light and RTI), portable loupe, stereo microscope, borescope or endoscope, X-radiography | 3D scanning/photogrammetry, RTI, high-energy X-rays (1 MeV and beyond) or gamma or neutron radiography, computerized tomography (CT), ultrasonic testing, thermography, eddy currents, image analysis | - | - | Quantity, form, distribution and location of defects, causes of flaws |
I.3 fig. 150 (defects diagram) |
| Repairs | Naked-eye examination (good lighting at different angles, including raking light and RTI, and UV light for nonmetallic fills), portable loupe, stereo microscope, borescope or endoscope, X-radiography | 3D scanning/photogrammetry, RTI, high-energy X-rays (1 MeV and beyond) or gamma or neutron radiography, computerized tomography (CT), ultrasonic testing, thermography, eddy currents, image analysis |
|
|
Techniques and materials used for repairing, skills of the founder, history of the piece (later repairs), possible relative attribution/dating |
I.4 fig. 167 (repairs diagram) |
| Assemblies | Naked-eye examination (good lighting at different angles, including raking light and RTI), portable loupe, stereo microscope, borescope or endoscope, X-radiography | High-energy X-rays (1 MeV and beyond) or gamma or neutron radiography, computerized tomography (CT), ultrasonic testing, thermography, eddy currents |
|
|
, assembly techniques and materials, possible relative dating |
I.5 fig. 201 (assemblies diagram) |
| Tool marks | Naked-eye examination (good lighting at different angles, including raking light and RTI), portable loupe, stereo microscope, borescope or endoscope (for inside marks), X-radiography | Silicone rubber impression, 3D scanning/photogrammetry, RTI, high-energy X-rays (1 MeV and beyond) or gamma or neutron radiography, computerized tomography (CT), digital microscopy, rugisometry/tribology techniques (interferometric microscopy, profilometry), microhardness, neutron diffraction | - | - | Degree and type of cold working/working on the model, recurrence of tool marks, artist’s involvement in the process, history of piece (original appearance, later interventions, present condition) |
I.6 fig. 233 (flow chart) |
| Gilding and plating | Naked-eye examination (good lighting at different angles, including raking light), borescope or endoscope (for drips of gilding on interior), portable loupe, stereo microscope, X-radiography | High-energy X-rays (1 MeV and beyond) or gamma or neutron radiography, computerized tomography (CT) |
|
|
Techniques and materials, including thickness of plating, history of piece (original appearance, later surface treatment, present condition) |
I.7 II.6 fig. 304 (flow chart) |
| Patina | Naked-eye examination (good lighting at different angles, including raking light and RTI, and UV light), portable loupe, borescope or endoscope (for corrosion on interior), stereo microscope | - |
|
|
Techniques and materials, including thickness and layering of patina, history of piece (original appearance, later surface treatment, present condition), possible relative dating |
I.8 II.6 figs. 305, 307, 338 (patina diagram and flow charts) |
| Inlays and overlays | Naked-eye examination (good lighting at different angles, including raking light and RTI and UV light), portable loupe, stereo microscope, X-radiography | 3D scanning, RTI, high-energy X-rays (1 MeV and beyond) or gamma or neutron radiography, computerized tomography (CT) |
|
|
History of piece (original appearance, later surface treatment, present condition) |
I.9 fig. 340 (inlays diagram) |
- 1
- For more details on examination techniques, see II.1, II.2, II.3.
- 2
- For more details on analytical techniques, see II.5, II.6.
- 3
- More details in Boffrand, Germain. 1743. Description de ce qui a été pratiqué pour fondre en bronze d’un seul jet la figure équestre de Louis XIV, élevée par la ville de Paris dans la place de Louis le Grand, en 1699. Paris: Guillaume Cavelier. https://archive.org/details/gri_33125010863229/page/n3., 54, 57; Mariette, Pierre-Jean. 1768. Description des travaux qui ont précédé, accompagné et suivi la fonte en bronze d’un seul jet de la statue équestre de Louis XV, le Bien-Aimé, dressée sur les mémoires de M. Lempereur. Paris: Imprimerie de P. G. Le Mercier. https://archive.org/details/gri_33125010908289/mode/2up.,111; Desmas, Anne-Lise. 2014. “Boffrand’s and Mariette’s Descriptions of the Casting of Louis XIV and Louis XV on Horseback.” In French Bronze Sculpture: Materials and Techniques 16th–18th Century, edited by David Bourgarit, Jane Bassett, Francesca G. Bewer, Geneviève Bresc-Bautier, Philippe Malgouyres, and Guilhem Scherf, 234–340. Paris: Archetype..
- 4
- By “rarer” techniques, we mean techniques less available in most laboratories devoted to cultural heritage. Note that this may vary from country to country.
- 5
- This includes repairs.
- 6
- Techniques such as Secondary Ions Mass Spectrometry (SIMS), Auger spectroscopy, and glow discharge ICP are not mentioned here since they are devoted exclusively to modern materials science (thin films in electronics, notably).