Illustration Credits

Figs. 1, 48, 51–52, 56, 69, 99: F. G. Bewer

Figs. 2, 4–5, 105, 154, 237, 270, 560, 562: A. Lacey and S. Lewis

Figs. 3, 24, 36, 60, 233–34, 240, 262–63, 266, 411, 519: © C2RMF / David Bourgarit

Figs. 7, 21, 27, 33, 77, 85, 88–89, 98, 118, 161–62, 165, 251, 544–48: © Andrew Lacey. Photo: A. Lacey and S. Lewis

Figs. 8, 34, 38, 97, 425–32, 524–25: © C2RMF / Manon Castelle

Figs. 9, 217–18, 220, 332, 531–34, 536–38: Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, Oklahoma

Figs. 10, 271, 374–75: Lorenzo Morigi

Figs. 12, 367: © C2RMF / Benoît Mille and Thierry Borel

Figs. 13–14: KHM-Museumsverband, Weltmuseum Vienna

Fig. 15: © C2RMF / D. Bourgait and V. Fournier

Figs. 17, 19, 22, 74, 549, 553: © C2RMF / Vanessa Fournier

Figs. 20, 81–82, 257, 561: © C2RMF / Anne Chauvet

Fig. 29: Photo: Paul Craddock

Fig. 30: © President and Fellows of Harvard College / F. G. Bewer

Figs. 31–32, 37, 63–65, 80, 91, 120–21, 126, 190, 199, 382–84, 388, 390–94, 396, 398–400, 510, 513, 515: © C2RMF / Elsa Lambert

Fig. 39: Palmer, 1929

Fig. 43: Courtesy of the Rijksmuseum

Figs. 44, 104, 180, 247, 250, 252–53, 256, 277, 472–74, 476–78, 480, 482–83, 485, 487–91, 493–94, 499, 550: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art / Photo: Pete Dandridge, The Sherman Fairchild Center for Objects Conservation

Fig. 45: J. Paul Getty Trust / A.-L. Desmas

Fig. 46: Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen

Figs. 47, 223, 308, 310, 351–52, 359, 362, 469–71, 479, 481, 484, 486, 492, 497, 555; Videos 4–5, 8: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Figs. 49, 68, 83, 172, 175, 191, 254, 265, 274–75, 297, 309, 344–45, 347, 350, 526: © C2RMF / Dominique Bagault

Figs. 50, 294: Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art / photo: Marco Leona / Department of Scientific Research

Fig. 53: Harvard Art Museums / Fogg Museum, Bequest of Grenville L. Winthrop, Photo © President and Fellows of Harvard College, 1943.1154 / F. G. Bewer

Figs. 54, 62, 67, 72–73, 87, 95, 129, 135, 156, 168, 235–36, 238, 241, 260, 276, 287–88, 339, 395, 405–6, 504–6, 508–9, 511, 514, 523, 527: © C2RMF / Anne Maigret

Fig. 55: © Andrew Lacey

Fig. 61: Photo: Andrew Silla

Fig. 66: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Irwin Untermyer, 1964 (64.101.1492) / Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Fig. 71: Harvard Art Museums / Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Gift of Benjamin and Lilian

Hertzberg, Photo © President and Fellows of Harvard College, 2004.205

Fig. 76: F. G. Bewer, with permission from the Collection of Mr. and Mrs. J. Tomilson Hill

Fig. 78: Royal Collection Trust / © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II 2021. Photo: F. G. Brewer

Figs. 84, 86, 440–46, 449–55, 459, 461, 465–66: © C2RMF / Daniel Vigears

Figs. 90, 92, 127, 194, 211, 215, 387, 462, 464; Video 15: © C2RMF / Thierry Borel

Figs. 94, 140, 312, 314: Laboratoire de Recherche des Monuments Historiques (LRMH) / A. Azéma

Fig. 96: Su concessione del Ministero della Cultura – Museo Nazionale del Bargello. Photo: F. G. Bewer

Fig. 100: Giovanni and Lorenzo Morigi

Figs. 101, 106, 554: Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments, Harvard University, inv. no. 0005; Photo: Tony Sigel

Figs. 102–3, 232, 326–27: The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore

Figs. 107–8: Harvard Art Museums / Fogg Museum, The Henry Dexter Sharpe Collection, Photo © President and Fellows of Harvard College, 1956.150

Fig. 109: © Comité Rodin

Figs. 110–17, 500–503: Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC: Purchase — Charles Lang Freer Endowment, F1936.6a–b / Department of Conservation and Scientific Research, Photo: Donna Strahan

Figs. 119, 184: © C2RMF / Manon Castelle and Anne Maigret

Figs. 123, 320, 323, 325, 336: Courtesy National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC

Fig. 124: Photo: Frits Scholten

Figs. 125, 163, 173: Photo: J. Paul Getty Trust / Jane Bassett

Figs. 130, 258: Harvard Art Museums / Fogg Museum, Partial gift of Max Falk and partial purchase through the Director’s Acquisition Fund, Photo © President and Fellows of Harvard College, 1998.1

Fig. 133: Samples courtesy of Jean-Marie Welter

Fig. 134: Jürgen Vogel / LandesMuseum Bonn

Fig. 136: Photo: J. Paul Getty Trust / Kenneth Lapatin

Figs. 137, 145, 148, 205, 227–28, 298, 341, 456–58: © C2RMF / Benoît Mille

Fig. 141: © Paul and Didier Landowski / ARS

Figs. 142–43, 146–47, 364, 419–23: © C2RMF / Aurélia Azéma

Figs. 149, 259: Antoine Amarger

Fig. 150: J. M. Welter and C2RMF / David Bourgarit

Figs. 151, 373, 520–21: Courtesy Musée National des Arts Asiatiques – Guimet

Figs. 152–53, 171, 178, 188: The Huntington Art Museum. The Arabella D. Huntington Memorial Art Collection. Image: Courtesy of the Huntington Art Museum, San Marino, California

Figs. 155, 159: Photo: © Nationalmuseum, Stockholm

Fig. 157: Harvard Art Museums / Arthur M. Sackler Museum, Gift of Mrs. Edward Jackson Holmes, Photo © President and Fellows of Harvard College, 1952.20

Fig. 158: © C2RMF / Alexis Komenda

Fig. 164: Harvard Art Museums / Fogg Museum, Bequest from the Collection of Maurice Wertheim, Class of 1906. Photo © President and Fellows of Harvard College, 1951.79

Fig. 166: © C2RMF / B. Hirard

Fig. 167: CAST:ING, 2018, Jane Bassett.

Fig. 169: CReA-Patrimoine, Université libre de Bruxelles. Collection comte Simon du Chastel, donated by Nathalie du Chastel / Photo: L.Garenne-Marot

Figs. 170, 342, 356: Musée du Louvre / C2RMF / Islametal / Annabelle Collinet

Fig. 177: © C2RMF / David Bourgarit and Francesca G. Bewer

Fig. 179: Su concessione del Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Firenze (Direzione regionale Musei della Toscana)

Fig. 181: Illustration based on concept sketch by Jane Bassett; final illustration by Gary Hespenheide

Fig. 185: Toledo Museum of Art (Toledo, Ohio), Purchased with funds from the Libbey Endowment, Gift of Edward Drummond Libbey, 1966.126. Image Credit: Chris Ridgway

Fig. 187: © Grünes Gewölbe, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden

Fig. 189: © Successió Miró / Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, Gift of Fran and Ray Stark

Fig. 200: The Huntington Art Museum. Adele S. Browning Memorial Collection, gift of Mildred Browning Green and Honorable Lucius Peyton Green

Fig. 201: D. Strahan and C2RMF / Dominique Robcis and David Bourgarit

Fig. 202: © C2RMF / Benoît Mille and Aurélia Azéma

Fig. 203: © 2012 The Henry Moore Foundation. All Rights Reserved. / ARS, New York / DACS, London. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, Gift of Fran and Ray Stark

Fig. 204: © C2RMF / D. Kolin, G. Blaise, Dominique Bagault

Fig. 206: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art / Photo: Donna Strahan, The Sherman Fairchild Center for Objects Conservation

Fig. 207: Photo and photo annotations (left): F. G. Bewer. Diagram (right): Lorenzo Morigi

Figs. 208–9: Freer Gallery of Art Study Collection, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC: Purchase — Charles Lang Freer Endowment, FSC-B-56

Fig. 210: Image courtesy Clark Art Institute. clarkart.edu

Fig. 214: Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.: Gift of Charles Lang Freer, F1914.21a–h

Fig. 222: Stefanie Rocknak. Photo: Marjee Levine

Figs. 225–26: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, The Alice S. Kandell Collection, S2018.32

Fig. 230: © C2RMF et Institut de Soudure

Fig. 231: © C2RMF

Fig. 239: Jean Dubos

Fig. 242: Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston (S26e21)

Figs. 246, 293: © Victoria and Albert Museum, London

Figs. 248, 255: © Barbara Plankensteiner, 2006

Fig. 249: Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments, Harvard University. Photo: Tony Sigel

Figs. 261, 559: Harvard Art Museums / Fogg Museum, Bequest from the Collection of Maurice Wertheim, Class of 1906, Photo © President and Fellows of Harvard College, 1951.78

Figs. 264, 268–69, 416: Photo: Brice Vincent

Fig. 272: Experimental work at AMTeC; micro-photo by Dana Goodburn-Brown

Figs. 273, 279, 285–86, 512: © C2RMF / Mathilde Mechling and David Bourgarit

Fig. 278: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Irwin Untermyer, 1964 (64.101.1492) / Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art / Photo: Pete Dandridge, The Sherman Fairchild Center for Objects Conservation

Fig. 280: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Robert Lehman Collection, 1975 (1975.1.1413) / Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art / Photo: Pete Dandridge, The Sherman Fairchild Center for Objects Conservation

Fig. 281–83, 290, 301, 417–18, 468: © C2RMF / Dominique Robcis

Fig. 289: Joachim Kreutner, BNM Munich

Fig. 291: Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC: Purchase - Friends of the Freer and Sackler Galleries, S1997.28

Figs. 292, 296, 299, 343, 349, 360: © The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved.

Fig. 295: Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC / Department of Conservation and Scientific Research, metallographic reference collection ME90069D

Fig. 300: Copyright © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports – Archaeological Receipts Fund) (N. 3028/2002). Ephorate of Antiquities of Athens City, Ancient Agora Museum.

Fig. 302: © C2RMF / Nathalie Pingaud

Fig. 305: CAST:ING, 2018, Jane Bassett

Fig. 311: J-G. Aubert - Laboratoire Arc’Antique - Grand Patrimoine de Loire-Atlantique

Fig. 316: © 2022 Artist Rights Society (ARS), New York

Fig. 318: Photo: Richard Valencia

Figs. 319, 322: Photograph © 2024 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Fig. 321: © The Field Museum, Cat. No. 337093, Photographer Ann Boulton

Fig. 324: Harvard Art Museums / Fogg Museum, The Henry Dexter Sharpe Collection, Photo

© President and Fellows of Harvard College, 1956.169

Fig. 328: Photo: © Alexis Daflos / Nationalmuseum

Fig. 329: Photo: Ann Boulton

Fig. 346: Su concessione del Ministero della Cultura – Museo Nazionale Romano

Figs. 348, 522: Courtesy Sébastien Clouet

Fig. 353: Patrimonio Nacional, Real Monasterio de San Lorenzo de El Escorial, 10034776

Figs. 354, 361: © C2RMF / Thomas Calligaro

Fig. 355: © Skulpturensammlung, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden / Photo by Elke Estel / Hans-Peter Klut

Fig. 357: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Eric Lidow (M.76.109a–b), Photo © Museum Associates / LACMA

Fig. 358: © C2RMF / Dominique Bagault and Benoît Mille, courtesy of CEA-LETI / Vincent Moulin

Fig. 365: photo by Nicola Dell’Aquila and Federico Taverni / Museo Egizio

Fig. 368: Sophie Descamps and Benoît Mille

Figs. 369, 402, 413, 424, 498: Photo: J. Paul Getty Museum / Arlen Heginbotham

Fig. 371: CC-BY license

Fig. 372: Juan Enrique Agudo, Pedro J. Pardo, Héctor Sánchez, Ángel Luis Pérez and María Isabel Suero via CC BY 3.0 license

Fig. 376: Image courtesy Falmouth University

Fig. 377: © C2RMF (image by Creaform)

Figs. 380–81: Archeovision / P. Mora and L. Espinasse

Figs. 385–86: © C2RMF (images by CEA)

Fig. 389: © C2RMF / Anne Chauvet and Elsa Lambert

Fig. 397: Drawing by Gary Hespenheide

Figs. 401, 403–4, 516: images by CEA / François Ott, processing by © C2RMF / Elsa Lambert

Fig. 412: Image by Thomas Birch, found originally in his PhD thesis (2014): “The provenance and technology of Iron Age war booty from southern Scandinavia,” University of Aberdeen

Fig. 414: © C2RMF / Eric Laval and Benoît Mille

Fig. 433: © C2RMF / Pascale Richardin

Fig. 434: Centre de Datation par le radiocarbone / C. Oberlin

Fig. 435: LSCE-LMC14 / E. Delqué-Količ / Graphs generated using OxCal4.3; https:​/​/​c14​.arch​.ox​.ac​.uk​/oxcal​/OxCal​.html

Fig. 436: IRAMAT-LAPA / S. Leroy

Figs. 437–38: Benoît and Florence Mille

Fig. 439: C2RMF / David Bourgarit (left image) and Expérimentation archéologique Nicolas Thomas Barsy 2012, photo Nicolas Méreau @ Inrap/Awap (right image)

Figs. 447–48: Collection Musées de Vienne. © DR

Figs. 460, 463: © C2RMF / David Kolin, Guillaume Blaise

Fig. 475: © The Metropolitan Museum of Art / Photo: Richard Newman, Scientific Research Lab, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Figs. 498, 563, 564: J. Paul Getty Trust / Arlen Heginbotham

Figs. 517–18: David Bourgarit and Mathilde Mechling

Fig. 528: © C2RMF / Manon Castelle and David Bourgarit

Fig. 542: from the collection of Gilcrease Museum, Tulsa, Oklahoma, Replicated by Permission of American Machinist and Endeavor Business Media

Fig. 543: Amon Carter Museum of American Art, Fort Worth, inv. 1961.96

Videos 1, 7, 10, 13: © 2020 Andrew Lacey and Siân Lewis

Videos 2–3, 9, 11, 16,18: © 2021 Andrew Lacey and Siân Lewis

Video 6: © J. Paul Getty Trust and Sandpail Productions

Video 12: © Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France (C2RMF) and Musées Departemental Arles Antique

Video 14: © 2018 D. Bouchardon / Laboratoire de Recherche des Monuments Historiques (LRMH)

Video 17: © 1992 Laurène L’Allinec. Permission courtesy of Laurène L’Allinec