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3. Editorial Rules, continued
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3

EDITORIAL RULES, CONTINUED
   

3.6

  

Biographical Information

Included in this chapter

  • Examples
    [from VCS, for Bartolo di Fredi; partial display, in two sections]

   

 

 

[from an end-user display, for Bartolo di Fredi]

 

 

 

 

3.6.1

 

 

Display Biography (required)

 

 

 

3.6.1.1

 

 

Definition
A concise expression of the nationality, major roles (e.g., architect, painter, sculptor), birth and death dates of the person or the places, activities, and dates of existence of the corporate body.

      • Example
      • American architect and engineer, 1898-1976
      • Italian architectural firm, founded 1953

 

 

 

3.6.1.2

 

 

Values
Display Biography is a free-text field; values may be ASCII characters (including numbers). No special characters or diacritics are allowed; diacritics must be expressed according to the codes in Appendix A.

 

 

 

3.6.1.3

 

 

Sources
The same standard general references that are appropriate for the rest of the record may be used for the display biography.

 

 

 

3.6.1.4

 

 

Discussion
The Display Biography appears with the preferred name in displays. When necessary, the Display Biography is used to express nuance, uncertainty, and ambiguous information regarding the artist's life dates, roles, or nationality. Information in the Display Biography is indexed by the following controlled fields Nationality, Role, Birth Date, and Death Date.

  • Each contributed record includes a display biography. When records are merged, the original contributed display biographies are retained, with an indication of which contributor submitted which biography. Note that biographical information for the same artist is often expressed differently by the various contributing institutions. One of the biographies is flagged as preferred; this is the one that appears with the preferred name in labels, results lists, and other displays. In the example below, the Vocabulary Program (VP) has added a biography and flagged it preferred.

      • Example
        [from ULAN on the Web]

 

 

 

 

 

 

3.6.1.5

 

 

RULES for Display Biography

 

 

  

3.6.1.5.1

 

 

Minimum requirements for Display Biography
The Display Biography is required. Record a concise phrase noting the biographical details of the person or corporate body. The preferred Display Biography is used with the preferred name to create labels or headings in lists.

  • Capitalization and abbreviation
    Capitalize nationality, culture, place names, period names, or other proper nouns. Use lower case for all other words. Avoid abbreviations, except the word circa (ca.), the numbers in century or dynasty designations (e.g., 17th century), and BCE and CE.

      • Examples
      • Russian painter, 1893-1936
      • American miniaturist, active 1860s
      • Native American craftsman, 18th century
      • French porcelain manufactory, flourished 1731-1794
      • Roman sculptor, 1st century BCE

 

 

Syntax
List information in the following order: nationality, role(s), comma, birth year, hyphen, death year (start and end dates for a corporate body).

      • Examples
      • Indian sculptor, 1923-1982
      • British architectural firm, 1910-1944
      • Flemish sculptor and architect, 1529-1608, active in Italy
      • Maya vase painter, 17th century

  • If "probably" or other indications of uncertainty are included, change the order and syntax for clarity.

      • Example
      • sculptor, probably Polynesian, 19th century

  • If birth or death dates are unknown, dates of activity may be substituted in the Display Biography.

      • Example
      • Mexican mosaicist, active ca. 1820-ca. 1840

  • Include the place of activity if the nationality is unknown or if the place of activity is different than nationality. Use natural word order.

      • Examples
      • Flemish sculptor and architect, 1529-1608, active in Italy
      • Greek architect, active 4th century in southern Italy
      • printmaker, 18th century, active in England

 

 

 

3.6.1.5.2

 

 

Ambiguity and uncertainty
Avoid phrasing the text in a way that can be confusing or ambiguous. Clearly indicate uncertain information (e.g., in the examples below "after," "active by," "or," "before," "probably").

      • Examples
      • Netherlandish painter, ca. 1564-after 1612
      • French or Flemish draftsman, active by 1423, died 1464
      • Russian illuminator and designer, probably 1862-before 1910

  • Caveat: When your source indicates that biographical information is ambiguous or uncertain among the scholarly community, be sure to convey this with appropriate terminology, such as "ca.", "probably", or other appropriate expressions of vagueness. Do not estimate or guess without supporting knowledge or documentation; only state as much as you know. Do NOT state as fact information about which you are uncertain! The difference can be subtle, and you must be aware of the particular phrasing and accepted expressions of vagueness generally used by art historians.

    • For example, if your source states that birth and death dates for an Italian painter are unknown, but that he produced works dated 1312, 1323 and 1326, the display biography could read Italian painter, active from at least 1312, or alternatively, Italian painter, active early 14th century. It should NOT read Italian painter, active 1312-1326, because expressing this precise span suggests that he worked only during those years, and that you are sure that no works were produced earlier or later; this is inaccurate, given that it is highly unlikely that the entire oeuvre of such an early artist is accounted for.

  • Caveat: Use indications of uncertainty such as probably or possibly only when the current scholarly opinion is uncertain. If you, the editor, are simply lacking the information, but the information is "knowable" given enough time and research, do NOT use probably or possibly because this implies you have access to more scholarly research than you actually do. Instead, phrase the information in another way or, if that is not possible and the information is required, consult with your supervisor. If instructed by your supervisor, put this record in a "temp.parent" candidate hierarchy pending further research.

 

 

 

3.6.1.5.3

 

 

Anonymous persons
For an anonymous person, or for any other person or corporate body where biographical information is unknown or incomplete, record the deduced nationality or locus of activity and approximate dates of activity as warranted by authoritative sources.

      • Examples
      • Italian painter, active 1330s-1340s
      • sculptor, probably Spanish, active 18th century in California

 

 

 

3.6.1.5.4

    

Non-artists
If the person had an important role other than artist, include it in the display biography.

      • Example
      • Spanish queen regent and painter, 1806-1878

   

 

3.6.1.5.5

    

Index biographical information
Use controlled fields to index important biographical information in the preferred Display Biography, including, nationality, roles, and birth and death dates. NOTE: You should index only the Preferred Biography, generally not the Biographies supplied by other contributors.

      • Example
      • Display Biography: French architect and designer, 1871-1922
        Controlled fields
        Nationality:
        French
        Roles:
        architect
        designer
        Birth Date: 1871
        Death Date: 1922

   

 

3.6.1.5.6

    

Editing contributed biographies
You may edit the Vocabulary Program's Display Biography, but do NOT delete or edit the Display Biography from other contributors. If there is no display biography that follows our editorial rules or is otherwise adequate for display, create a new Display Biography with the contributor initials "VP" (for Vocabulary Program); make the VP Display Biography preferred.

  • Examples
    [the first biography is by VP]

   

 

   
  • Caveat: The items of information all the way across the row must come from the contributor indicated at the far right of the row (see example above). Thus, if a contributed display biography would be adequate, however the row does not have the correct Birth Place, Death Place, or other indexed information that you wish to include, do NOT simply add this information to the contributor's row. Create a new preferred Display Biography with VP as the contributor, and add the Birth Place, etc. as necessary to the VP row.

  • If you have created a Display Biography, and if the Birth Date, Death Date, Birth Place, etc. of other contributors' rows are incorrect or conflict with the VP information, delete any conflicting indexed information; but do not edit or delete other contributors' display biographies! In the example above, only the dates and other indexing information for the preferred Display Biography remain; but the Display Biographies for all contributors are intact.

   

3.6.1.5.7

    

Additional rules
For additional rules for the elements that make up the Display Biography, see separate sections on Nationality, Roles, and Birth and Death Dates below.

   

 

 

 

 

3.6.2

    

Nationality (required)

   

 

3.6.2.1

    

Definition
A reference to the nationality, culture, or ethnic group associated with the person or corporate body. Nationality is referred to in the Display Biography and indexed in the Nationality fields.

      • Examples

English

Nigerian

Vietnamese

Japanese

Sienese

Italian

Celtic

Berber

Ancient Roman

Native American

     
   

[Display Biography and Nationality fields from VCS]
     

3.6.2.2

    

Values
In the Nationality field, values are controlled by the Nationality list. See Appendix F or search the list in VCS. In the free-text Display Biography, generally use the same controlled values as found in the controlled Nationality field.

  • Each Nationality in the controlled Nationality List comprises a numeric code and a term. Codes are devised so that searching on the truncated code will retrieve similar things. For example, if you search for "901%" in the partial list illustrated below, you will retrieve all the Nationalities in Europe (the percent sign is the wildcard in VCS).

   

 

3.6.2.3

    

Sources
Use the same standard general references that are used for the rest of the record.

   

 

3.6.2.4

    

Discussion
If it is necessary to express nuance or uncertainty about the nationality, do so in the Display Biography. Index the nationality in the Nationality field. Nationality does not necessarily indicate legal citizenship of a particular nation, empire, or city state. It refers to a prolonged association of an artist with a given place. Nationality may refer to historical nations (e.g., Flemish). It may also refer to culture (e.g., Frankish) or ethnic groups (e.g., Native American). Artists may have multiple nationalities, particularly when they lived for prolonged periods in more than one nation, or when one so-called nationality is more general than another that also applies to the artist (e.g., for an ancient vase-painter, Greek and Ancient Greek are broader, general designations, while Attic is more specific).

     

3.6.2.5

    

RULES for Nationality

   

3.6.2.5.1

    

Minimum requirements
In the Display Biography, list the most significant national affiliation of the artist; on rare occasions, a second nationality may be recorded in the Display Biography. Record the adjectival name form of a nation, other place name, culture, or ethnic group.

      • Examples
      • Display Biography: Japanese photographer, born 1943
      • Display Biography: South African architect, 1907-1992

  • In the Nationality field, link to terms referring to the national, geopolitical, cultural, or ethnic origins or affiliation of the person or corporate body referred to in the preferred Display Biography. Note that this element does not always refer only to nationality in a modern, legal sense.

      • Example

   

     

   
  • Specificity
    For the Display Biography, generally record a designation at the level of nation (e.g., Italian) or a broad culture or ethnicity (e.g., Native American). Exceptions occur for historical nationalities, in keeping with common practice of various disciplines in art history (see Historical nationalities and Special cases below).

    • When indexing in the Nationality field, link to the broad culture or nationality as appropriate, and also include a more specific designation if known and when appropriate (e.g., Sioux in addition to Native American in the example below).

      • Example
        [for Kicking Bear]

   

   

   

 

   
  • Exception: Contributors may occasionally choose to use a specific nationality designation in the Display Biography rather than a broad one, typically because their local practice dictates using a term for the Nationality that is not in the ULAN controlled nationality list (i.e., it is a term synonymous to the ULAN Nationality term). For example, if the ULAN Nationality controlled term for a culture is Crow, but the contributor prefers the synonym Absahrokee, in order to record the biography to reflect their preference, they may write a Display Biography using Absahrokee (e.g., Absahrokee craftsman, 19th century) rather than the broad Native American. Indexing terms would be the same in either case: Native American and Crow.

   

 

3.6.2.5.2

    

Uncertain Nationality
In the Display Biography, use "or" if authoritative sources maintain that one of two nationalities are possible. Use "probably" or another indication of uncertainty if it is used by authoritative sources. As with all information that will be visible to end-users, do not make a guess.

      • Examples
      • Display Biography: artist, probably British, active 16th century
        Nationality:
        British

      • Display Biography: engraver, probably Spanish, active in Mexico 16th century
        Nationality:
        Spanish
        Event: active Location: Mexico

   

 

3.6.2.5.3

    

Regions
If scholarly opinion holds that the nationality is uncertain, or for modern artists for whom legal nationality is uncertain or unstated in your source, use a broader context such as a reference to a region or a continent, if possible (e.g., Eastern European and African below). Index any known national affiliations in the Nationality field.

      • Examples
      • Display Biography: Eastern European calligrapher and scribe, died 1575
        Nationality:
        Eastern European
        Croatian
        Hungarian
        Austrian

      • Display Biography: African architect, contemporary
        Nationality:
        African

     

3.6.2.5.4

    

Multiple nationalities

  • Dual citizenship
    And: If a modern person holds dual citizenship, record both nationalities using the word "and" in the Display Biography.

      • Example
      • Display Biography: Canadian and American painter, born 1946
        Nationality:
        Canadian
        American

   
  • Other multiple nationalities
    Other than with modern dual citizenship described above, it is rare that two nationalities would be cited in the Display Biography with the word "and"; however, multiple nationalities should be indexed in the Nationality field as necessary. Typically, if the artist worked in two nations, it is better to unambiguously explain the situation in the display biography, and then index the nationalities and places appropriately.

    • To choose which nationality to write in the nationality area of the Display Biography, use the nationality classification that is predominantly used in authoritative sources. Index both/all nationalities in the Nationality field.

      • Examples
        [most sources call this artist "Italian," although he was born in Germany]
      • Display Biography: Italian photographer, 1833-1896, born in Germany
        Nationality:
        Italian
        German
        Birth Place: Dresden (Dresden district, Saxony, Germany)

        [most sources call this artist "French," although he was active in England]
      • Display Biography: French ceramicist, 18th century, active in England
        Nationality:
        French
        British
        English
        Event: active Location: England

   
  • International
    Use international for multinational corporations. Do not use it for persons who have multiple citizenships or who have worked in multiple nations.

      • Example
      • Display Biography: International architectural organization, 1928-1959
        Nationality:
        International

   

 

3.6.2.5.5

    

Preferred nationality
In the Nationality field, for the preferred Nationality, choose the Nationality used most often to describe the national or cultural affiliation of the person or corporate body, which is generally a broad designation (e.g., Italian rather than Florentine). Flag the preferred Nationality. See Preferred Flag below.

  • For indexing in the Nationality field, the preferred nationality should be chosen according to the order in the following decision tree:

    • the primary nationality for this person;
    • if it is unclear which is primary, use the first one chronologically;
    • if the nationality is uncertain, list the more/most likely one first;
    • if none of the above applies, use the first one listed in your source;
    • if all else fails, use the first one in alphabetical order.

      • Examples
        [person had two nationalities over a lifetime]
      • Display Biography: Chinese architect, 1898-1967, naturalized American
        Nationality:
        Chinese (preferred)
        American

        [nationality is described as uncertain by scholars]
      • Display Biography: Dutch or German printmaker, 16th century
        Nationality:
        Dutch (preferred)
        German

  • Generally, make the broad designation the preferred Nationality. If you have included a very specific historical designation in the Display Biography (e.g., Sienese) index both the specific designation and the broader context (e.g., both Italian and Sienese). Likewise, if you have included a very general designation in the Display Biography, in keeping with common practice in a given discipline, include a specific designation in the Nationality field, as appropriate.

      • Examples
      • Display Biography: Sienese painter, active by 1389, died 1428
        Nationality:
        Italian (preferred)
        Sienese

      • Display Biography: Native American chief and painter, ca. 1846-1904
        Nationality:
        Native American (preferred)
        Sioux

     

3.6.2.5.6

    

Place of activity
If the individual or group was active in a place other than the place implied by the nationality, in the Display Biography include "active in …" after the life dates, as in the example below. The place of activity should be indexed both as an additional Nationality and as an Event (Locus of Activity), as warranted. See also 3.7 Events.

      • Example
        [from VCS, for Le Corbusier; Display Biography vs. indexed Nationalities]

   

 

3.6.2.5.7

    

Historical nationalities
In the Display Biography, include a historical nationality when warranted (e.g., for a 14th-century artist from Brussels, it is common practice in the discipline of Medieval Art History to list the nationality as Flemish rather than Belgian, because Belgium was not a nation until the 19th century).

  • In the Nationality field, index the historical nationality.

      • Example
      • Display Biography: Flemish pewterer, active 1607, died 1642
        Nationality:
        Flemish (preferred)

  • For historical persons, you may record the adjectival name of a city-state, if known and if appropriate for a specific discipline (e.g., Attic in reference to ancient Greek artists). Ethnicity and culture may be included as warranted.

      • Examples
      • Display Biography: Attic vase painter, active late 5th century BCE
        Nationality:
        Greek (preferred)
        Ancient Greek
        Attic

      • Display Biography: Florentine painter, ca. 1421-1457
        Nationality:
        Italian (preferred)
        Florentine

 

   
  • Special cases
    For the preferred Nationality and for the Display Biography, if there is potential confusion between a historical nationality and a modern one with the same or a similar name, generally use the term for the historical nationality if possible. However, be consistent with the idiosyncratic scholarly practice common in the given discipline. A few guidelines are given below:

    • Italian: Use Italian as the preferred nationality for all artists active on the peninsula of Italy, even when they lived before the nation of Italy was united in 1870. Where warranted by common scholarly practice, you may use a more specific designation in the Display Biography (see Florentine example above) if warranted by authoritative sources.

    • Ancient Greek, Egyptian, etc.: Use Greek or Egyptian in the display biography for ancient Greek and Egyptian artists. Index with Greek or Egyptian as the preferred Nationality. Include Ancient Greek or Ancient Egyptian as a non-preferred indexed Nationality. Where warranted by common scholarly practice, you may use a more specific designation in the Display Biography (see Attic example above).

    • Flemish: Use the following date ranges to distinguish between Flemish, Belgian, Netherlandish, and Dutch:

    • Netherlandish: pre-1579, north or south
    Dutch: post-1579, nation of The Netherlands only
    Flemish: pre-1830, south only
    Belgian: post-1830, nation of Belgium only

    • British: Use the specific terms, English, Scottish, etc., in the Display biography. For the preferred Nationality in the Nationality field, use British.

    • Czech: Use Czech only for artists from the Czech area of Europe after 1918 (also note that the Czech Republic split from Czechoslovakia in 1993; do not use Czech for modern Slovakian artists). For artists living earlier than 1918, use a specific term such as Bohemian, or another appropriate term.

     

3.6.2.5.8

    

Culture
Where appropriate, list the culture of the person or corporate body (Aztec, Hutu) as a non-preferred Nationality. This is appropriate when the culture does not correspond to a defined geopolitical area and time period, as when various tribal lands overlap or exist within a political state (e.g., the Native American tribes in the USA), or when a cultural group migrated across wide areas and thus is not associated with one limited region (e.g., the Celtic, Hebrew). Generally, the broader designation should be used in the Display Biography; however, see the discussion of exceptions under 3.6.2.5.1. Minimum Requirements: Specificity above.

      • Examples
      • Display Biography: Native American draftsman, ca. 1850-1927
        Nationality:
        Native American (preferred)
        Southern Cheyenne

      • Display Biography: Hebrew scribe, active 1476-1482, active in Spain
        Nationality:
        Hebrew (preferred)
        Spanish

   
  • Dynasties
    Dynasties may be used to obliquely refer to culture when this is common in a given discipline (e.g., Ming dynasty).

      • Example
      • Display Biography: Chinese painter and scholar, Ming dynasty, 1470-1524
        Nationality: Chinese (preferred)
        Ming

   

3.6.2.5.9

    

Ethnicity
In the Nationality field, list the ethnic or racial group to which the person belongs when this is a primary designation used for this person by authoritative sources (e.g. Native American, African American, Polynesian). If this is the primary designation for the person, use it in the Display Biography.

      • Example
      • Display Biography: Australian Aboriginal painter, ca. 1908-1967
        Nationality: Australian Aboriginal (preferred)
     

3.6.2.5.10

    

Adding new Nationalities
Most necessary terms for Nationality should already be in the Nationality list. If you feel you need to add a new Nationality to the Nationality list, try looking for a synonym. If you still feel you must add one, consult with your supervisor. Nationalities should be derived from TGN or AAT.

   

 

 

 

 

3.6.3

    

Preferred Flag for Nationality (required-default)

   

 

3.6.3.1

    

Definition
Flag indicating whether or not the Nationality is preferred for its subject record.

   

 

3.6.3.2

    

Values
The flags are controlled by a pick list in VCS: P - Preferred, N - Non-Preferred
     

3.6.3.3

    

Discussion
Every record must have a preferred Nationality.
     

3.6.3.4

    

RULES
The first Nationality entered is automatically flagged "preferred" by the system. If this is not correct, change the Preferred Flag accordingly.

   

 

 

 

 

3.6.4

    

Sequence Number for Nationality (required-default)

   

 

3.6.4.1

    

Definition
The Display Order number (or Sort Order number), indicating the sequence of the Nationality in relation to the other Nationalities of a ULAN record.

   

 

3.6.4.2

    

Values
System generated, but the numbers may be changed by the editor. Values begin with 1 and are numbered sequentially; there is no upper limit imposed by the system.

     

3.6.4.3

    

Discussion
Most records have one Nationality. It would be highly unusual to require more than two or three nationalities for a person or corporate body. If you feel you need to add more than that, consult with your supervisor.

     

3.6.4.4

    

RULES

  • Number the Nationalities in sequence. Do not skip numbers.

  • The Nationality in sequence number 1 must be the Preferred Nationality.

  • Arrange the Nationalities in order of importance from a researcher's point of view, or from general to specific. If chronology is an issue, place Current Nationalities before Historical ones.
   

 

 

 

 

3.6.5

    

Role (required)
     

3.6.5.1

    

Definition
A term that characterizes a significant role or characteristic of a person or a function or purpose of a corporate body. The primary role or roles are stated in the Display Biography. These primary roles and all other significant roles are indexed in the Role field.

  • Examples

painter

architect

landscape architect

sculptor

architectural firm

portraitist

printmaker

museum

marine painter

goldsmith

art academy

author

illuminator

religious order

pope

 

publisher

 

[from VCS]
     

3.6.5.2

    

Values
Values in the Role field are controlled by the Role list. See Appendix E or search the list in VCS. Use the values from the controlled list for the role in the free-text Display Biography.

  • Each Role in the Role List comprises a numeric code and a term. Codes are devised so that searching on the truncated code will retrieve similar things. For example, if you search for "300%" in the partial list illustrated below, you will retrieve all the types of architects (the percent sign is the wildcard in VCS).

     

3.6.5.3

    

Sources
Use the same general reference works that are used for other information in the record.
     

3.6.5.4

    

Discussion
If it is necessary to express nuance or uncertainty about the roles, do so in the Display Biography. Index roles in the Role field. Roles are the major professional roles or activities performed by the person throughout his or her lifetime (e.g., artist, architect, sculptor). For a corporate body, roles include the major activities or purpose of the firm, institution, or other corporate body (e.g., studio, manufactory, workshop).

     

3.6.5.5

    

RULES for Role
     

3.6.5.5.1

    

Minimum requirements
In the Display Biography, record at least one but generally not more than three Roles.

  • In the Role field, list the role(s) in the Display Biography as well as any appropriate additional Roles, as time and editorial priorities allow.
   
  • Specificity
    In the Display Biography, use the most specific significant roles (e.g., painter rather than artist), if known. For example, German painter and printmaker, 1678-1732 is better than German artist, 1678-1732. However, the general role artist or another very general role should typically be indexed as the first role in the Role field.

    • Include only the most significant professional roles in the Display Biography. Typically, there should be only one or two roles in the Display Biography; use three if necessary. If there are more than three roles applicable to the artist, index them in the Role field, but avoid including them in the Display Biography.

      • Example
      • Display Biography: Russian painter and sculptor, 1789-1852
        Roles:
        artist (preferred)
        painter
        sculptor
   
  • Broader contexts
    In the Display Biography, for corporate bodies that are part of a larger corporate body, include the name of a broader context along with the role, for clarity.

      • Example
      • Display Biography: American, division of the Disney Company, contemporary
        Roles:
        division (preferred)
        studio
        animator(s)

      • Display Biography: American research institute, part of the National Gallery of Art, founded 1979
        Roles:
        research institute (preferred)
   
  • Singular vs. plural
    In the Display Biography, for persons, use roles expressed in the singular (e.g., architect, painter). For corporate bodies, use a role that describes the entity (e.g., architectural firm, studio) or that is expressed in the plural (e.g., painters).

    • In the Role field, some controlled values for roles are used for both singular and plural, expressed by using an "s" in parentheses (e.g., wood engraver(s)). In the Display Biography, use the correct singular or plural, without the parentheses.
     

3.6.5.5.2

    

Uncertain roles
In the Display Biography, if you do not know the specific role or roles, use the general "artist."

      • Example
      • Display Biography: German artist, ca.1488-after 1535
        Role:
        artist (preferred)

  • If you do not even know if the person was an artist or not, place the record in "temp.parent/persons not artists," which contains records for unknown persons who possibly are not artists.

  • In rare cases, authoritative sources may express uncertainty over the possible role. In such cases, the uncertainty may be expressed in the Display Biography, and the possible role should be indexed in the Role field. (As usual, if the uncertainty arises merely from your lack knowledge, do not use "possibly" or otherwise make mention of the suspected role.)

      • Example
        [when an authoritative source states that he was definitely a painter, and may have been a printmaker too]
      • Display Biography: Dutch painter, possibly printmaker; 17th century
        Roles:
        artist (preferred)
        painter
        printmaker
     

3.6.5.5.3

    

Multiple roles
If the person had two or three major life roles, include them in the Display Biography. More than three roles may be indexed in the Role field.

      • Example
     

3.6.5.5.4

    

Preferred and other roles
In the Role field, to choose the preferred Role, follow the guidelines below. In most cases, where a general term is applicable, the preferred role will be the general role. Flag the preferred Role. See Preferred Flag below.

  • Individual artists
    In the Role field, if the person produced multiple types of art, use the general term artist for the preferred Role. Note that most artists work in multiple media; for example, painters are usually draftsmen too. Therefore, for creators of fine art, assume the preferred role should be artist, unless authoritative sources state facts to the contrary. For non-preferred roles, list more specific roles, as warranted by authoritative sources.

      • Example
      • Display biography: German miniaturist and landscapist, active 17th century
        Roles:
        artist (preferred)
        painter
        miniaturist
        landscapist

    • Exception: If the person was an architect and produced no other type of art, for preferred role use the term architect.

    • Do not use the term artist for people who manufacture items but who are not artists per se (artists are creators of fine art of the caliber collected by art museums). Do searches in ULAN to find similar situations as examples and consult with your supervisor.
   
  • Craftsmen
    If the person created multiple types of works that are considered crafts and not fine art, make the preferred role craftsman in the Role field.

      • Example
      • Display biography: Polish ébéniste and lacquerer, active late 18th century
        Roles:
        craftsman (preferred)
        ébéniste
        lacquerer(s)
   
  • Architectural firms
    For the preferred Role for an architectural firm, use architectural firm, which is typically a term that is general enough to characterize their primary activities, function, and characteristics.

      • Example
      • Display biography: Canadian architectural and urban planning firm, active from 1975
        Role:
        architectural firm (preferred)
        urban planning firm
   
  • Studios and manufactories
    Use manufactory as the preferred Role for groups active in the 17th century or later that made fine art, furniture, tapestries, ceramics, and other decorative objects, as contrasted to workers active in modern industrial complexes, or "factories (structures)," where objects other than art are produced.

      • Example
      • Display biography: French tapestry manufactory, active from 1662 to the present
        Role:
        manufactory (preferred)
        tapissiers
        craftsmen

    • Use studio for groups comprising a master artist or architect and his or her assistants, working in the 17th century or later. For a specialized studio (e.g., photography studio), use the more specific term, such as photography studio (unless the studio produced works other than photographs, when you should use the more general term studio).

      • Example
      • Display biography: English photography studio and publisher, active 1854-ca. 1900
        Roles:
        photography studio (preferred)
        publisher

    • For groups of artists or craftsmen collaborating to produce works prior to the 17th century, usually under a master's name, use workshop.

    • Note that phrases containing the words workshop or studio that are used to describe unidentified hands working in a workshop are not within the scope of ULAN (e.g., workshop of Raphael).
   
  • Families
    For families of artists, generally use artists as the preferred Role. Include family as an alternate Role.

      • Example
        [for the Boyd family]
      • Display biography: Australian painters and ceramicists, active 19th-20th centuries
      • Roles:
        artists (preferred)
        painters
        ceramicists
        family